Psychology, as a science, relies on empirical research methods that involve systematic data collection, rather than common sense or casual observations. This ensures that conclusions about behavior and mental processes are based on evidence and not on subjective opinions or anecdotal reports.

Scientific rigor in psychology requires carefully controlled studies, statistical analyses, and peer review to validate findings.

Many of our everyday assumptions about human behavior are based on “common sense,” yet systematic psychological research often shows these assumptions can be false or overly simplistic.

Always question “common sense” in psychology. Rigorous research methods frequently reveal unexpected aspects of behavior.

Suppression is a conscious defense mechanism in which a person deliberately tries to push unwanted thoughts, desires, or memories out of their awareness. It differs from repression, which is unconscious.

“Denial” is refusal to accept reality; “inhibition” curbs impulses; “projection” attributes one’s own impulses to others.

Historical determinism (particularly in psychoanalytic traditions) holds that early childhood events and influences shape personality in such a way that it is largely set by adulthood, with little room for later change.

In contrast, Interactionism posits that personality results from continuous interaction between the individual and environment throughout life.

Test-Retest Reliability is determined by administering the same test to the same group of individuals on two different occasions and then correlating the two sets of scores to gauge consistency over time.

High test-retest reliability indicates that test scores are stable and reproducible over time.

Mean → Average (III),
Median → The point above/below which lies 50% of the scores (IV),
Mode → Value repeated the maximum number of times (I),
Variability → Extent of individual differences around the central tendency (II).

Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) describe distribution centers, while measures of variability (range, variance, standard deviation) describe spread.

“Gestalt” (German for “form” or “shape”) refers to the school of psychology emphasizing that the whole is more than the sum of its parts. We naturally organize stimuli into coherent wholes (e.g., perceiving a face, rather than discrete features).

Gestalt principles help explain perception phenomena like figure-ground, proximity, closure, and similarity.

Avoidance learning occurs when a subject (human or animal) modifies its behavior to prevent or postpone exposure to an unpleasant or harmful stimulus.

In observational learning, behaviors are learned by watching others. Cathartic learning is not a standard psychological term; insight learning involves a sudden “aha” moment.

Proactive interference occurs when old information interferes with the recall of new information. Thus, previously acquired material can hamper the ability to remember new learning.

Retroactive interference is the opposite process—new learning interferes with old memories.

Retrieval cues are stimuli or hints that help access memories stored in LTM. They “point” the mind to the correct location of stored information, facilitating recall.

Effective cues often involve the same context or emotional state as when the memory was encoded.

Stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism learns to respond to one specific stimulus (e.g., a doorbell) but not to other similar stimuli (e.g., a phone ring), indicating it can differentiate between them.

In contrast, stimulus generalization would be if the cat meowed to both doorbell and phone ring, failing to distinguish between them.

In an experimental design, the control group does not receive the experimental treatment and is used as a baseline to compare with the experimental group, which receives the treatment or intervention.

A well-designed experiment often uses random assignment to ensure the control and experimental groups are comparable.

In a Fixed Ratio (FR) schedule, a subject receives reinforcement after every predetermined number of responses. For instance, an FR-10 schedule means the subject is rewarded after every 10th response.

“Fixed Interval” (FI) schedules are based on time, not the number of responses.

In psychoanalytic theory, cathexis refers to the process of investing emotional or libidinal energy in an idea, person, or object. This concept is central to Freud’s view of the psyche.

“Catharsis” is the release of emotional tension; “Ego ideal” and “anxiety” relate to different psychoanalytic processes.

Functionalism (associated with William James and others) focused on how mental processes help organisms adapt to their environment. Structuralism, in contrast, aimed to break down mental processes into basic elements.

The key question in functionalism is “What is the function or purpose of a given psychological process?”

The Discrimination Index of a test item indicates how well the item differentiates between high-performing (upper group) and low-performing (lower group) test takers. It is typically calculated based on the proportion of correct responses in these two groups.

A positive discrimination index means high scorers are more likely to get the item right than low scorers, indicating a good item.

Type A personality is characterized by high levels of competitiveness, time urgency, and aggressiveness. They are often described as workaholics who push themselves unnecessarily.

Type B personalities are more relaxed, Type C are associated with cancer-prone traits (coping style), and Type D (“distressed”) is linked with negative affectivity and social inhibition.

Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) has three stages: Alarm, Resistance, and Exhaustion. If stress continues for too long, the body can no longer sustain the resistance stage and enters exhaustion.

Prolonged stress leading to the exhaustion stage can result in increased vulnerability to illness.

Cognitive psychologists study internal mental processes such as perception, memory, problem-solving, and language. Studying how a child acquires the concept of color directly relates to cognitive development and mental processes.

(B) relates more to personality/social psychology, (C) is a question in physiological/biological psychology, and (D) has roots in psychoanalytic theory.

Free Association is a psychoanalytic technique where the patient is encouraged to verbalize all thoughts without censorship. This method is used to uncover repressed memories and feelings.

Introspection focuses on self-observation of conscious thoughts; behavioral conditioning and trial-and-error learning relate to learning theories rather than psychoanalysis.

Freud’s approach (psychoanalytic theory) emphasizes early childhood experiences as the primary determinants of personality development. According to historical determinism, Freud viewed personality as largely fixed by the end of early childhood. In contrast, behaviorists like B.F. Skinner and John B. Watson, and even Pavlov’s conditioning principles, emphasize ongoing learning and changes due to experience.

Freud’s theory focuses on psychosexual stages and the formative influence of early development, leaving limited room for major personality changes later in life.

Developmental psychologists study how and why individuals change or remain the same over the course of their life, including cognitive functions like problem-solving, language, and social interaction.

“Community psychology” focuses on social issues and well-being in community settings; “Organisational psychology” deals with workplace behavior; “Personality psychology” focuses on individual personality traits.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) studies how to model or simulate intelligent behavior, closely aligning with cognitive psychology’s focus on mental processes such as thinking, problem-solving, and perception.

AI often uses concepts like information processing and computational models, which parallel cognitive psychology’s emphasis on how the mind processes information.

Case studies involve an in-depth, detailed examination of a single individual or a very small group. They do not generally require large or representative samples, as they focus on one instance or a few instances intensively.

Surveys typically require representative samples to generalize results. Experiments and longitudinal studies also often strive for representativeness, though their sampling strategies may vary.

A control group is the one that does not receive the independent variable manipulation. Here, Group A has no video gaming, which makes it the standard comparison group.

Groups B, C, and D are experimental groups because each receives a certain amount of gaming.

EEG (Electroencephalogram) measures electrical activity of the brain, and GSR (Galvanic Skin Response) measures changes in skin conductance. Both are direct physiological recordings of bodily processes, not dependent on self-report or direct behavioral observation.

Self-report relies on participants’ subjective accounts. Behavioral measures observe actions. Projective measures (e.g., Rorschach) interpret responses to ambiguous stimuli.

“Receptors” receive sensory stimuli; “effectors” carry out motor responses (e.g., muscles, glands). Hence, the analogy is: Sensory : Motor :: Receptor : Effector.

The relationship is that receptors detect incoming information, while effectors enable an organism to act or respond.

The somatic nervous system (voluntary control of body movements), sympathetic nervous system (part of autonomic, fight-or-flight response), and central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) are established subdivisions of the nervous system. The term “symbolic” is not a recognized subdivision of the nervous system.

The nervous system is broadly divided into the Central (CNS) and Peripheral (PNS). PNS has the Somatic and Autonomic branches (the latter includes sympathetic and parasympathetic).

The sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system initiates the “fight-or-flight” response: increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and redirecting blood flow to muscles.

The parasympathetic system counters these effects (“rest-and-digest”), while the somatic system controls voluntary movements, and glial cells support neurons.

Dendrites are the “receiving” parts of the neuron. In the TV analogy, the TV Set’s Antennae corresponds to the receptor that receives signals (electromagnetic waves). The transmitter and transmitter’s antenna send signals (more like axons), while the TV set itself processes signals (akin to the cell body).

Dendrite = receiver, Axon = sender. Hence, the “receiver antenna” is analogous to the dendrite.

During an action potential (the “firing” of a neuron), there is a rapid influx of sodium ions (Na⁺) causing the inside of the cell membrane to become temporarily positive relative to the outside. This is called depolarization.

After the peak of the action potential, potassium ions (K⁺) flow out, repolarizing the neuron back to a negative interior. But the hallmark moment is when the interior becomes positive.

• A. Content Validity → (II) Representative coverage of behaviour domain
  B. Concurrent Validity → (III) Correlation with another measure of the same behaviour
  C. Predictive Validity → (IV) Forecasting future performance
  D. Face Validity → (I) Appears valid to the test-takers


 

Face validity is the least scientific form of validity, focusing on whether a test “looks” valid to those taking it.

The central core of the brain includes the medulla, pons, midbrain, reticular formation, and parts of the forebrain like the thalamus and hypothalamus. The temporal lobe is part of the cerebral cortex, which is outside the central core.

The lobes of the cortex (frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital) are considered higher-level processing areas, not “central core” structures.

Sensation refers to the initial detection of stimuli by the sensory organs. Perception is the further organization, interpretation, and integration of these sensory signals into meaningful experiences.

So, we “sense” visual data with our eyes, and “perceive” shapes, faces, and motion in our brain.

An absolute threshold is the smallest intensity of a stimulus that a person can detect 50% of the time under ideal conditions. In the context of light energy, it is the minimal detectable level of illumination for vision.

“Lumens” is a measure of total visible light output, while “critical ratio” is not a standard sensory psychology term.

Sensory adaptation refers to the decline in sensitivity to a constant stimulus. For instance, when you first jump into a cold pool, the water feels very cold; soon you “get used to it” (adaptation).

Sensory overload is too much stimulus, while deprivation is too little. Adaptation is the diminished response to unchanging stimulation.

The iris is the colored part of the eye that expands or contracts to change pupil size, regulating the amount of light entering the eye.

Cornea is the clear covering, the lens focuses light, and the retina contains photoreceptors (rods and cones).

In the visual system (for example, in the retina):

• Receptor Cells (rods and cones) receive the light stimulus.
  Bipolar Cells receive signals from the photoreceptors.
  Ganglion Cells receive signals from the bipolar cells.
  The axons of the ganglion cells form the Optic Nerve (A) carrying the signal to the brain.


 

Specifically for sight: Light → rods/cones (receptors) → bipolar cells → ganglion cells → optic nerve → brain (visual cortex).

The text (figure) stands out against the background (the white page). Gestalt psychology describes how we organize visual elements into figures that stand out from the ground (background).

Perceptual constancy refers to perceiving objects as unchanging despite changes in illumination or viewpoint. Similarity deals with grouping similar items; contiguity is about nearness in time and space.

The nativist perspective claims that certain skills or abilities are “hard-wired” into the brain at birth. In terms of perception, nativists argue that basic perceptual processes are largely innate, with minimal influence from experience.

In contrast, empiricist or behaviorist views emphasize learning from the environment, and interactionist sees a blend of innate and learned factors.

A constructivist (top-down) approach suggests that our perceptions are shaped by prior knowledge, expectations, and experiences. Perceptual set (or expectancy) is precisely about how our mind “constructs” perception based on these factors.

Data-driven (bottom-up) processing emphasizes how sensory input drives perception, whereas the constructivist view stresses the role of cognition and prior knowledge.

Binocular disparity requires both eyes because it involves the slightly different view each eye has of the same object. Motion parallax, linear perspective, and texture gradient are monocular cues (available to one eye alone).

Monocular depth cues are often referred to as “pictorial cues,” which can be conveyed in a two-dimensional image, whereas binocular cues require two eyes with overlapping fields of view.

A standard definition of learning in psychology is “a relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavior potential) due to experience.” Thus, learning is considered relatively permanent. By contrast, performance is the observable expression of what has been learned. It can vary with motivation, fatigue, or context. Hence, (B) is correct.

(A) is inverted: Performance is observable; learning is inferred.
(C) is also inverted: Performance can be measured directly; learning must be inferred from performance.
(D) is incorrect as stated.

Classical conditioning involves learning an association between two stimuli. The painful snake bite (unconditioned stimulus) elicits fear (unconditioned response). The previously neutral context (walking near the river) can become a conditioned stimulus that also elicits fear (conditioned response).

This scenario illustrates how fear can generalize to associated contexts or cues beyond the original feared stimulus (the snake).

In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Over time, the conditioned response (CR) diminishes and may eventually disappear. Thus, the UCS is omitted and the CR undergoes reduction.

For instance, if a dog salivates (CR) to a bell (CS) because the bell was paired with food (UCS), stopping the food (UCS) after the bell eventually leads to extinction of salivation (CR).

B. F. Skinner’s operant conditioning framework posits that behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Reinforcement (positive or negative) increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring.

While punishment, extinction, and generalization are related concepts in operant conditioning, Skinner emphasized reinforcement as the primary tool for behavior control and modification.

Selective attention involves focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus (the basket) and filtering out others (the crowd). The player’s concentration helps ignore distracting visual or auditory input from the audience.

Rehearsal refers to practice (often verbal or mental), whereas relaxation concerns reducing tension. Sensory overload is having more stimulation than one can handle.

Paying attention is a critical first step in the encoding process. By focusing on specific stimuli, attention enhances the likelihood that information will be effectively encoded and later retrieved.

If you never attend to something, it rarely gets encoded into long-term memory. Quality attention fosters more robust memory traces.

Short-Term Memory (STM), also called working memory, typically retains information for up to about 20–30 seconds (maybe a bit longer with rehearsal). If not actively rehearsed, the information is quickly lost.

Procedural memory involves how to do tasks (e.g., riding a bike). Long-term memory can last indefinitely if properly encoded. A schema is a conceptual framework guiding information processing.

Procedural Memory (A) is memory for skills and actions—like riding a bicycle (III).
Sensory Memory (B) includes iconic (visual) memory and echoic (auditory) memory; (IV) matches short-duration visual memory.
Semantic Memory (C) is memory for meaning and general knowledge—often considered the “deepest level of processing” (I).
Episodic Memory (D) is memory of personal events (II).

Semantic = meanings, facts, and knowledge. Episodic = personal experiences. Procedural = skills/actions. Sensory = immediate, brief raw data (visual or auditory).

Permissive parents are non-demanding and non-controlling. They have few rules and rarely enforce consistent guidelines, often leading to children with less self-regulation and more behavioral issues.

Authoritative parents combine reasonable demands with high responsiveness; authoritarian parents are highly demanding but not very responsive.

According to Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, the Preconventional level is characterized by external consequences (e.g., avoiding punishment or seeking rewards) as the basis for moral decision-making.

Conventional morality focuses on societal rules and approval of others; postconventional considers abstract principles and universal ethical considerations.

- Psychosexual Perspectives (A) -> Freud (III).
- Psychosocial Theory (B) -> Erikson (I).
- Moral Development Theory (C) -> Kohlberg (IV).
- Cognitive Dissonance Theory (D) -> Festinger (II).

Freud = psychosexual, Erikson = psychosocial, Kohlberg = moral, Festinger = cognitive dissonance.

In Beck's Cognitive Therapy, distorted or illogical thinking patterns (A) often trigger a negative affect (D), such as hopelessness or sadness. This negative emotional state then fuels negative behaviors and thought patterns (C), reinforcing a loop of maladaptive thinking. Ultimately, these persistent negative cognitions, affects, and behaviors precipitate or exacerbate depression (B).

Beck’s approach highlights that changing these illogical ideas and negative affect can break the cycle and alleviate the depressive state.

Gordon Allport distinguished among three kinds of traits:
Cardinal traits: pervasive characteristics that dominate an individual’s personality.
Central traits: general building blocks of personality.
Secondary traits: preferences and situational traits that are less consistent.

B. F. Skinner was a behaviorist, Hans Eysenck identified broad factors (e.g., extraversion, neuroticism), and Carl Rogers focused on humanistic self-concepts.

Norms are typical or average scores obtained by administering a test to a large, representative sample. They serve as reference points to interpret an individual’s score in comparison to the group.

Z-scores or standard scores are transformations of raw scores; norms are the data distributions (means, percentiles) gathered from representative samples.

Traditional Binet-type tests emphasize language, comprehension, memory, and problem-solving skills. Direct color discrimination tasks are generally not part of the classic Binet scales.

Binet-type items typically include tasks like vocabulary, sentence comprehension, digit span, object recognition, but not specialized perceptual discrimination of colors.

Wechsler intelligence scales (e.g., WAIS, WISC) yield both a Verbal IQ and a Performance IQ (nonverbal), as well as a combined Full-Scale IQ. The Stanford-Binet traditionally provided a single overall IQ (originally a “ratio IQ”).

Wechsler introduced the concept of a “Deviation IQ” and separated tasks into verbal versus performance domains.

Standardized intelligence tests correlate moderately well with academic performance (e.g., college GPA). However, IQ by itself is not a robust predictor of factors like personal wealth, scientific award-winning, or long-term happiness.

IQ tests measure a narrow band of cognitive skills, which is more directly linked to academic performance than more complex real-world achievements.

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) presents ambiguous pictures of people and scenes, prompting the subject to create stories that may reveal underlying motives, emotions, and themes of the personality.

Rorschach uses inkblots, MMPI is an objective personality inventory, and the Strong-Campbell is a vocational interest test.

In older, less-used terminology, “neurosis” often involved excessive anxiety, phobias, or obsessions, but without major distortions of reality. True loss of contact with reality (delusions or hallucinations) is more indicative of psychosis.

Although “neurosis” is no longer an official DSM classification, the term historically denoted anxiety-based disorders without psychotic features.

Crystallized intelligence (as per Cattell’s theory) consists of the knowledge and skills one gains over time through education and experience. Fluid intelligence, by contrast, is the capacity to reason and solve novel problems independently of acquired knowledge.

Crystallized intelligence involves vocabulary, general knowledge, and semantic memory. Fluid intelligence underlies problem-solving and pattern recognition.

- Repression (A) to (II): Blocking or "forgetting" unacceptable ideas or impulses. - Regression (B) to (I): Reverting to an earlier, more childlike form of behavior. - Projection (C) to (IV): Attributing one's own unacceptable impulses to others. - Displacement (D) to (III): Shifting feelings to a safer, more acceptable target.

Displacement example: Yelling at a family member instead of an intimidating boss. Projection example: Accusing someone else of feeling the anger that you actually feel.

According to Carl Rogers’ concept of the fully functioning person, key features include being aware of experiences (A), having the courage to face challenges (B), and the ability to adapt to changing circumstances (D). Fully functioning individuals are not inhibited or restricted in their capacity to make free choices, which rules out (C).

A fully functioning person also shows openness to experience and a trust in themselves, consistent with Rogers’ humanistic perspective.

The usual steps for simple random sampling:
A. Determine the population size (B)
B. Identify the sampling units in the population (D)
C. Decide on the sample size (n) (C)
D. Randomly select n cases (A)

It’s important to clearly define the population and its units, then figure out how many you need, and only then draw randomly from that frame.

- Nominal (A) to (II) (Diagnostic groups of Mental Disorders) - Ordinal (B) to (I) (Division of people on the basis of Socio-Economic Status) - Interval (C) to (IV) (Measurement of temperature on a centigrade scale) - Ratio (D) to (III) (Measurement of weight)

Nominal = "naming" or categorizing; Ordinal = ranking; Interval = numeric scale without true zero; Ratio = numeric scale with absolute zero.

Typical parametric assumptions include: - The population from which samples are drawn is normally distributed (A). - The variables are measured at interval or ratio level (B). - The sample is randomly drawn from the population (D).
Having “many outliers” (C) is actually problematic for parametric tests, not an assumption.

Additional assumptions can include homogeneity of variance for certain tests (e.g., ANOVA). Excessive outliers can violate normality and unduly influence parametric analyses.

- 'g' Factor Theory (A) to Spearman (II). - Hierarchical Theory (B) to Vernon (III). - Multifactor Theory (C) to Thurstone (IV) (primary mental abilities). - Cubical Model (D) to Guilford (I) (Structure of Intellect model).

Spearman proposed "g" for general intelligence; Thurstone identified multiple primary mental abilities; Guilford had the "3D" or "SOI" model; Vernon proposed a hierarchical model bridging "g" and more specific factors.

Dissociative Fugue (now categorized under Dissociative Amnesia in DSM-5 with “fugue” specifier) involves unexpected travel away from one’s usual surroundings and confusion about one’s personal identity. Dissociative Amnesia generally involves memory loss without wandering or assuming a new identity. Hypochondriasis is excessive worry about having a serious illness. Conversion Disorder involves neurological symptoms (e.g., numbness, paralysis) without a medical basis.

Dissociative Fugue is a rare phenomenon often triggered by severe stress or trauma, leading to a temporary new life pattern.

Erikson's stages: 1. Autonomy vs. Shame occurs in the toddler years (approximately 1-3 years). 2. Initiative vs. Guilt occurs in early childhood (approximately 3-5/6 years). 3. Generativity vs. Stagnation occurs in middle adulthood (approximately 40-65 years). 4. Ego Integrity vs. Despair occurs in late adulthood (65+ years).

Other Eriksonian stages include: Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy), Industry vs. Inferiority (school age), Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence), and Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood).